Asses Palmerston's contribution to British foreign policy 1846-65

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Between 1846 and 1865, Palmerston held office either as Prime Minister of Foreign secretary. Even as Prime Minister, Palmerston was interventionist in foreign affairs. Palmerston popularised foreign affairs in that he became the embodiment of British Foreign policy. Palmerston officiated foreign affairs when Britain was the dominant world force.

The principles of British foreign policy were established in 1815, at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, these were four-fold. They were firstly to maintain a balance of power in Europe of whom France was the dominant power. General stability was important, the British felt that the greatest threat to stability came from arbitrary monarchies who wanted to expand at any cost. Secondly to ensure international conditions supported Britain's economic interests; a peaceful world meant that Britain could trade freely. The third area of foreign policy was the defence of Britain's territory both at home and abroad, 'threats to British territory were many and real' in the 1th Century. The Indian sub-continent was of particular interest and importance. Finally, the fourth major area of British foreign policy was to establish friendly and stable governments throughout the world. During this period, the interest over foreign affairs, which the monarch had so far retained, diminished, Palmerstone took very little heed of the Queen's role in foreign policy' . The reason for this interest was two-fold, firstly, the monarch in the head of the armed forces, and secondly, many of the royal families in Europe were related to the British royal family, the monarchy had unique relationships with Europe.

Palmerston had in fact held office before 1846. His so called 'first phase' lasted from 180-1841. During this period Palmerston faced 4 key issues; the Belgian Revolt, the Spanish-Portuguese problem, Turkey and the Near Eastern problem and finally China and the Opium wars. All were huge successes, Palmerston demonstrated his capability in the field of foreign affairs. In the case of the Spanish-Portuguese problem he had managed to out-manoeuvre the French and keep them out of the Iberian Peninsula. The Opium wars had established British interest in China and firmly asserted British dominance and superiority, although the terms of the Treaty of Nan King were morally suspect. Furthermore, the Near Eastern Problem was probably one of Palmerston's greatest successes in his 4 years in office.

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His second phase began after a break from office of 5 years. This second phase lasted from 1846-1851, during which Palmerstone was at his most aggressive, domineering and independent. He faced 5 key issues/events. The first was that of the Spanish Marriages, this affair was not a success for Palmerston. When Queen Isabella was 10 Louis Philippe put forward a proposal that Isabella should marry one of his sons. Palmerston immediately 'took up the Coburg candidature…in no uncertain terms' . Philippe was not prepared to negotiate any longer and in 1846 announced that Isabella was to marry his son, the Duke de Montpensier. It was a disaster for Palmerston, 'the fury and indignation to which this announcement gave rise in Great Britain marked the end of any further attempt to keep up even the pretence of an Anglo-French entente' . The year of 1848 was called the 'year of revolutions', with revolutions in Lombardi, Venetzia and France, Hungary and Bohemia. However, Palmerston did not involve himself with any of these countries. Although he supported the idea of self-rule, he feared that if the Austrian Empire collapsed it would allow Russia to become the dominant power. Russia was an autocracy, an arbitrary monarchy, something the British government feared, 'in the British view, the most likely threat to general stability…would be an arbitrary monarchy…in effect this meant an erratic Tsar like Alexander 1' .

The Haynau Incident soured relations between Palmerston and the monarchy. General Haynau had visited Britain in an offì¥Á M ð ¿ Ÿ1 bjbjâ=â= . W W �, ê ÿÿ ÿÿ ÿÿ l Î Î Î F 4 à à à ø ø ø ø ì¥Á M ð ¿ Ÿ1 bjbjâ=â= . W W �, ê ÿÿ ÿÿ ÿÿ l Î Î Î F 4 à à à ø ø ø ø n sent a gun-boat to blockade Athens to protect the rights of a British citizen, Don Pacifico, to compensation. His cabinet, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were appalled by his lack of consultation although he was cited as a hero in the country. The affair had also soured the already poor relations with France and Russia, allies of Greece who were infuriated at Greece's humiliation. However, Palmerton, after a vote of no confidence had been put forward against him, saved his position and his reputation, and to some extent his party's position in power with his 'Civis Romanus Sum' speech. Despite this, the Don Pacifico affair had a number of important consequences; firstly, he had developed a reputation for bullying smaller states, secondly relations with France, Italy and Austria were strained and finally, relations with the monarchy had broken down.

The affair over Louis Napoleon was a disaster for Palmerston who had made two fatal political errors. Firstly he had failed to consult with his cabinet and secondly he had chosen to support a Bonaparte, contrary to the Queen's wishes. Russell was forced to sack Palmerston, who would react by bringing down Russell's administration in 185.

However, this was by no means the end of Palmerston's career. The period 185-55 was dominated by the war in the Crimea. By 1855, and the start of Palmerston's 'third phase', public opinion was demanding an end to the war. Events proved fortuitous for Palmerston, the conditions of British troops began to improve and the Russian Tsar had died, to be replaced by his son who was eager to bring about peace. The war was ended at the Treaty of Paris in 1856, this settlement was attributed to Palmerston who had removed Britain from the war with national dignity. It was the beginning of what was to become the most successful period of Palmerston's career. His success in withdrawing Britain from the Crimea was to be followed up be a second war with China. Britain achieved three things from the Second war with China, firstly there was an extension of ports open to the British, secondly the opium trade had been legalised to the whole of China and finally, Britain was permitted to send diplomats to Peking. Although this was a success for Britain's trade and economy, Britain's merchants now had extended influence in China, and for Palmerston personally, his actions were morally dubious 'Palmerston's actions can be questioned from a moral point of view' , he had breached international laws by bombarding Canton and his policies were once again bullying. However, this did not seem to matter in the political climate of the time. These successes were followed up by a further success in the field of Italian Unification. This had extended Britain's trading interests to Italy; it also meant that Britain had achieved Italy as a firm ally. Britain had established itself as a country in support of self-rule and liberal democracies and opposed to autocracies. Italy saw Britain's constitutional monarchy as an excellent model for their own governmental system. What is more, Britain had out-manoeuvred France in her attempt to dominate the Western Mediterranean.

Despite these early successes, the American civil war and the Alabama incident damaged Palmerston's reputation as a foreign secretary and his rash and dramatic reactions were to damage relations with the monarchy once again. When the Civil war broke out over the right to cessation the British government took a neutral stance, in favour of the North. However, when Union agents boarded a British ship, 'The Trent', to arrest confederate agents Palmerston demanded wrote a strongly worded apology to President Lincoln and demanded the release of the confederate agents. He then despatched troops to the Canadian British border. Price Albert was forced to step in and diffuse the situation, he 'persuaded Palmerston to tone down some of his more insulting phrases…Prince Albert probably deserves much more of the crdit for keeping Britain out of the war' . P's actions were once again bullying and irrational. His indecisiveness in the Alabama Incident of 186 severed relations with the North further, it was an incident which 'could have been avoided if Palmerston or Russell had acted promptly' It was also around this time that Otto Von Bismarck arose. Bismarck out-manoeuvred Palmerston in Denmark in 1864 and Poland in 186. The situation in Poland was Palmerston's first obvious failure in foreign affairs. Britain had been outmanoeuvred by the Tsar and 'had seriously underestimated the astuteness of Bismarck' . He had also mortally offended Napoleon III who should have been treated as an ally. 'All in all British prestige took a severe knock' . Both in this case and in Denmark in 1864, Palmerston made threats that he could not support militarily which amounted to national humiliation for Britain.

One of the principals of British foreign policy was to maintain the balance of power in Europe. This was successfully achieved until the latter part of P's rule when Prussia emerged as the dominant power. The protection and expansion of British trade interests was an area in which Palmerston was successful, he established and extended trade interests in China and in Italy after Italian unification. He also successfully protected British territory at home and abroad. The area he was least successful in was 'establishing friendly governments throughout the world', his bullying of smaller powers and his arrogant and proud attitude did not win him friends. His actions were often dramatic and ill thought out, Palmerston cared little for the opinions of the monarchy, his lack of consultation in the Don Pacifico affair shocked Q. Victoria and his cabinet. His erratic personality and drive resulted in a number of consequences. He established Britain as the dominant international force, as 'policemen of the world'. He also establishes the basis for British imperialism and popularises political ideology, his defence of nationalism and his support of self-determination as well as his 'Civis Romanus Sum' speech won him great support in Parliament and with the electorate. However, he also became known for political pragmatism, for example during the American Civil war, he adopted a 'neutral stance' which was really a neutral stance in favour of the North. Furthermore, some of his actions were morally dubious, his actions in the Opium wars in particular have been cited as morally debatable, he certainly adopted a 'bullying policy' in relation to smaller powers. Sums up Palmerston's career, saying that 'on the whole he had been remarkably successful; only in the last couple of years did he seem to be getting out of touch with important developments'

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Does diet really help ot prevent colon cancer?

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1.0 Introduction

Cancer affects our cells, the body's basic unit of life. To understand cancer, it is helpful to know what happens when normal cells become cancerous.

1.1 Definition of colon

The colon is a part of the digestive system. It is actually a muscular tube that has an average length of 1.8m and its function is to absorb excess nutrients and water from food material and blocks the material passing through the digestive tract. It also store waste product known as stool, which is converted by bacteria. It is divided into 4 sections ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon and sigmoid colon. The ascending colon is on the right side of the abdomen extended upward from the cesium. The transverse colon encompasses the left side of the upper abdomen. In the area slightly below the transverse colon and towards pelvis is the descending colon. The last section of colon, the sigmoid colon as connected to the rectum. The inner lining of the colon is slick, which makes it a haven for all kinds of infectious growth. (What Are Colon and Rectal Cancers? , 00 April 1)

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1. Definition of polyps

Among these malignant growths are polyps. These polyps are usually shaped like dome tipped button or mushrooms, and their size may vary from a tiny seed to larger than a plum. One of the examples of polyps is the adenomas polyp. Polyps if left unchecks, can develop into a cancerous stage after a long period, which is normally ten years. Which in turn, progresses into colon cancer. These polyps normally grow in the inner lining of the colon. (Prevention of Colon Polyps and Cancer, 00)

1. Symptoms

Early symptom and indications show major changes in the bowel habits. The patients might experiences illness such as diarrhea, unexplained anemia, abdominal discomfort, tiredness and sudden weight loss. (What is Colorectal Cancer? , 00, April 1). There's also loss of hemoglobin in blood, where it drop to 6g from 15g. These might be the factor that is causing blood in the stools. (Lopez.F, 00, May 1)

1.4 Risk factors

Among the risk factor that should be taken into consideration when estimating the risk of colon cancer are age, gender, race, and genetic factor, family health history. According to research, 0% of colon cancer occurs in people more than 50 years of age. Men seem to be more likely to develop colon cancer the women. African-American seem to have higher risk of developing colon cancer. People who have personal or family history of colon cancer are known to be at a higher risk in developing colon cancer. People who overweight seem to be more prone to colon cancer. Other than that, unhealthy habits such as smoking and excessive assumption of alcohol increase the risk. (What is Colorectal Cancer? , 00, April 1) Many people find ways to prevent colon cancer through their daily habit, their diet. But can diet really help to prevent colon and colorectal cancer?

.0 Nutrients in our daily diet

There are many nutrients that our body need. Having know the benefits of the nutrients to our body helps in promoting healthy diet.

.1 Fiber

There are many nutrients in the food that will lower the colon cancer risk. For example, fiber is an important nutrient in the normal maintenance of the gastrointestinal tract, where carcinogenic substances are likely to be present in the colon. (Wakat.D, 00, April 1). Grains, legumes (lentils, beans, and peas), vegetables and fruits contain the most fiber in foods. These fibers which do not dissolve in water are the insoluble fiber. Insoluble fiber in the other hand, speeds up bowel elimination process by rapid movement of waste through the intestine when fiber is present, increasing the bowel function and reduces or absorbs bacterial and cancer causing toxins. Only insoluble fibers provide protection against colon cancer. (Dalzell.D, 00). The largest study ever conducted, in 10 European countries where 50,000 people initially found 5% reduction in colorectal cancer rate in those eating 5g of fiber diets daily than those eating less than 15g. By further analysis, those who double their fiber intake could reduce risk by 40% and the protective effect on the left side of the colon, where most cancer originated was the greatest. (Kirchheimer.S, 00, May 1). The top 0% who had the most fiber intake shows the biggest reduction. In the study, grains, cereals and fruits, was associated with lower risk of colon polyps as the intakes of these dietary fiber increases. (Reuters, 00, May ) A diet with fiber helps in preventing colon cancer. Therefore, the intake of insoluble fiber diet should be increased. Fiber is known to prevent colorectal cancer and this possibility should not be closed. (Lopez.F, 00, May 1).

. Fats

In most diets, meat seems to outweigh vegetables, leading into excess fats and increase in colon cancer risk. The rate of colon cancer is high in a person who takes red meat regularly. Red meats and processed meats provide the most fats and calories. Excessive calories will be turn into fats in the body. Saturated fats are easily oxidized, increasing free radicals formations, destroying the body's cell chromosomes. (Fox.M, 00, May 16). Red meat also increases faecal ammonia concentration which greatly increases risk of developing tumor. (Bingham S.A. 000) Therefore, every amount of red meat in a diet is a risk factor. Other than that, cooked meat contains substances called heterocyclic amides which can cause cancer. (Lopez.F, 00, May 1) Red meat had negative impact on the prevention of colon cancer but still need to be taken as a potential energy source to the body.

. Vitamin D & Calcium

Vitamin D and calcium not only contribute to healthy bone but also lower colon cancer risk. Patients with colon cancer have high concentration of lithocholic acid. But laboratory animals given vitamin D then lithocholic acid do not get colon cancer. Vitamin D has the ability to absorb calcium. The aforesaid nutrients reduce the risk by slowing down epithelial cell growth, a process that can lead to cancer. It also suppresses the occurrence of polyps but have no effect on size and growth. . (Fox.M, 00, May 16). 7% patients that are on a low fat-diet and taking calcium show noticeable reduction in adenomas. In contrast, patient who did not take calcium only shows 6% in reduction. Dairy products such as milk and cheese are reliable source of vitamin and calcium. (Osterweil.N, 001). Milk and cheese have a good balance of nutrient. Therefore, this is a healthy diet and able to prevent colon cancer.

.4 Vitamin A & Beta Carotene

Vitamin A helps to protect against colon cancer. Beta carotene is also known as pro-vitamin A, are water soluble precursors which are made into Vitamin A by the body. Vitamin A can be found in animal and fish liver, eggs, milk and butter while beta carotene can be found in carrots, broccoli, spinach, cabbage, orange and yellow fruits. The aforementioned are non-toxic and constitute an extreme potent source of antioxidant activity and as immune modulators. (Vitamin A/Beta-Carotene Role in Cancer Prevention and Treatment, 00, May 17). A high vitamin A serum helps to shield the pathogenesis of colorectal adenomas. (Payne.J, 001, February ). Besides good for the eye, food which contains these nutrients can help to prevent colon cancer from spreading.

.5 Vitamin E

Vitamin E is commonly found in vegetable oils, margarine, wheat germ, most nuts and green leafy vegetables. (Vitamin E May Help Protect Against Colon Cancer, 17, November 5). This increases the effectiveness of five-flourouracil (5FU), a leading and most effective chemotherapy drug against colorectal cancer. Without vitamin E, the drug 5FU only have 0% respond rate. Within weeks of treatment with 5FU in addition of vitamin E, the treatment leads to cessation of tumor growth or complete tumor regression. The other benefits of this vitamin are its antioxidant properties and also the key to activate a gene called P1 in cancer cells. This gene is a powerful cell cycle inhibitor that can halt cancer cell growth. (Vitamin E May Enhance Effectiveness of Colorectal Cancer Drug, 17, November 0). Vitamin E is vital as these vitamin is used to stimulate cancer fighting cells and drugs.

.6 Folic acid/Vitamin B

Folic acid is known as vitamin B and also a compound of folates that can be found in many green vegetables. It is required to help the body to convert hemocysyeine to methionine. Then, methionine will convert to S-adenosymethionine, which essential to form DNA that makes up genetic blueprints. The lack of the aforesaid causes an inability of proper DNA production which will lead to genetic error with resulting mutation and providing foundation for cancerous changes. Other than that folates can repair DNA. (Meschino.J, 00, May 17)

.7 Selenium

Selenium is one of the strongest antioxidants which reduce the colon cancer risk. This nutrient works effectively against high fat and low fiber diet. According to Journal of the American Medical Association, selenium reduces colon cancer risk by 58%. Most fruits, grains and vegetables have high amount of selenium. Garlic, turnips and orange are the example if these food. Being the essential trace mineral to health, selenium offers protection from cancer cell damage. Furthermore, selenium activates the immune system to eliminate cancerous cells by increasing the activity and the number of white blood cells. Apart from that, it is also an essential component of glutathione peroxides, an anticancer agent. Glutathione peroxide protects human cell from cancer cells, viruses, bacteria, chemical and toxins which produces free radical. The existence of other antioxidant vitamins enhances the selenium's cancer-protective mechanism. Such of these vitamins are vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin E. Low levels of selenium in blood augment the colon cancer risk. (Darvish.N.K, 00, May 1)

.8 Phytochemical carotenoids

Phytochemical is a plant chemicals which have cancer fighting effects. These fruits and vegetables containing phytochemicals can be identified by it's colour of dark green, red, yellow-orange or blue. Carotenoids are coloured pigments in some animal tissues and in many fruits and vegetable. This pigment is red, yellow and orange in colour. One of the examples of carotenoids is lutien which may protect against colon cancer among the general population but shows no effect on population that has family history of cancer. Lutien is commonly found in spinach, broccoli, lettuce, tomatoes, oranges, carrots, celery and greens. Another example is lycopene which have strong cancer protective properties. Lycopene is found in tomatoes, other red fruits and vegetables. Besides carotenoids, isothiocyanates and indoles are types of phytochemical which yield ,-diindolomethane (DIM) when digested .DIM stop malignant cells from dividing and multiplying, and affects the protein levels that affects tumor cells. Isothiocyanates and indoles can be found in cruciferous vegetables like broccoli, cabbage, brussel sprouts, cauliflower and turnips. Organosulfurs are part of the allium family of phytochemicals which have benefits on the immune system. However, supplements do not appear to be protective. (What is the Role of Diet in Colon and Rectal Cancers? , 001)

.0 Non preventive result of well known healthy diet

Many researches have come up with unexpected results. Some recent research shows well known nutrients that believe to prevent colon cancer do not have the preventive elements. Many concluded that some healthy diet intakes do not prevent colon cancer when The New England Journal of Medicine (000) posted their recent statistic.

Fiber Doesn't Prevent Colon Cancer

Recent study has found that fiber might not prevent colon cancer. Ironically, a new study shows that one type of supplement might be bad for the colon. According the latest study in The Lancet Medical Journal, Polyps were slightly more likely to occur in those taking certain fiber supplement. Another study of 55 Europeans who previously had polyps in the bowel had % of tumor reoccurrence in that three years compared to 0% of those given fake granules. Many research in favor to the negative side. The possibility of a protective role is not likely and may not be related to the role fiber in general play in the bowel cancer. (Study Fiber Doesn't Prevent Cancer, 000).

Fruits and Vegetable Doesn't Prevent Colon Cancer

From the largest nutrition study suggested that diets rich in fruits and vegetable does not protect against colon cancer. As reported in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute, a study of 10 to 16 years participant who ate most fruits and veggies had the same risk than those who ate least. This is surprisingly as the colorectal cancer is considered to be most affected by diet. Thus, further study were carried out with 0,000 women and 47,000 men of various age but resulted in the same conclusion. (Boyles.S, 000, October 1)

Conclusion

Colon cancer has many risk factors but it is up to us to prevent it and the best way to prevent it is through our daily diet where it is the most general, cost effective, the least side effect method. There are some research which in turn negates the ancient believes and the theoretical proven studies which supports the benefits of those healthy diets. This shows that nothing is 100% sure and 100% proven. Besides, there's also other risk factor, place of study and the participants' lifestyle we must take account as they are varied from time to time. Therefore, to lower the cancer risk, we must take our diet all rounded to fulfill our body's need. We also must be moderate and not to take excess in any diets. This is to prevent from over taking that might lead to the side effects of the associated nutrients.

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Multiple Identities

If you order your cheap custom essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Multiple Identities. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Multiple Identities paper right on time.

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There are traits and characteristics that describe a person or group of people. However, each person or group has its own unique characteristics. The many countries within Europe have their own unique traits. These defining characteristics contribute to the creation of an identity. An identity is a notion that one can associate themselves with. Many examples of such principles are religion, language, culture, gender, social status and nationality. The idea of identity is based upon the Us-other dichotomy and is created on the assumption that the Us-group is superior to the Other-group. A person or group of people that can identify themselves with more than one idea leads to the concept of multiple identities. Roberta Guerrina describes multiple identities as, "a set of concentric circles. The closer a circle is to the centre, the closer this particular feature of an individual's identity is to his/her self ". Multiple identities can be reinforcing but can also lead to conflicts between different levels of the individual's identity. There are many characteristics that define Europe today, many of which multiple identities have shaped. From the forming of communities, to the forming of nations, and to the forming of the European Union, multiple identities can be seen having a great impact on life throughout Europe. Conquests, revolts, and the changing of boundaries can be seen to be a consequence of many people with different identities coexisting on the same land. This is also playing a significant role as the force of globalization is growing and creating new and diversified identities throughout Europe, thus leading to a more tolerant and inclusive society.

Every person craves a sense of belonging. A person defines their identity based upon their personal beliefs and surroundings. There is a double dimension in the notion of multiple identities. Identity is how a person can relate to and comprehend the world around them. Family, ethnic group, occupational group, nationality, tribe, gender and social class are a few of the major groups of belonging. These units are the fundamental forces that affect a person. There are many instances where a person holds more than one identity pertaining to the same matter. These can be reinforcing, but can also lead to conflict within. A person can belong to the Us-group; while at the same time belong to the Other. The disagreement that arises from the conflict of interest is at the heart of Europe, and can be seen throughout history. This sense of belonging has shaped Europe into what it has become today through many processes.

The multiple identities within Europe had a great impact on the individual countries of Europe. There are many allegiances that one may choose to participate in. These allegiances often overlapped each other; these groups of association often affect different parts of the Europeans livelihood. The religious groups and communal influences upon the people of Europe played a significant role in the growth of Europe's many nations. Over the years, the religious and communal beliefs of the people further developed the lands within European borders. During the early centuries, the multiple religious identities played a major role in the development of the geographical borders. The conflict between the religious identities, as many others, arose from the Us-Other dichotomy. After the era of Christendom, the Christian religion separated into many of its different sectors. The detachment of the individual branches leads to the feeling of superiority between the Us and Other groups and the conflicts that arose because of these feeling forever changed the state-wide borders within Europe. Yet, the communal influences within the people also greatly contributed to the transformation of the country borders within Europe. In the earlier times, the people felt a loyalty and sense of community that often lead to conflicts of interest because of feelings of inferiority and superiority. During the early modern periods, the identity for most people was centered on their own town. People felt a sense of community within and were suspicious of neighbouring towns even though they were in the same realm. However, these communities within had commonalities, like common enemies. This sense of multiple identities shaped Europe from the beginning. As the concept of a nation began to emerge in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth century, many of the sub national identities were submerged and taken over by nationalism. The concept of nationalism was not very successful at the beginning because the union of many communities which were thrown together at random by dynastic marriages, and broadly dispersed across the map of Europe each had their own identities and were unwilling to be inclusive of the Other. The holdings of the Emperor Charles V in the sixteenth century are a classic example. They included populations with entirely different laws, customs, languages, and cultures. The multiple identities affected the national borders within Europe, yet the conflict of interest that arose from the multiple identities was cause for many disputes.

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Many battles were caused by the conflict of interest that arose from the Us-Other dichotomy created by the existence of multiple identities. Various consequences resulted from these battles, a population could drive the other out of the desired land, or they could separate the territory between them with new boundaries. In addition the victor would stay and breed with the original population, resulting in a mixture of cultures, customs and languages. These new combinations resulted in multiple identities for many.

All of these conflicts left a lasting impression on Europe. Examples of this can be seen through the conquest of Europe by the Romans. They brought their culture all over Europe, but most of the existing identities didn't disappear. This desire from the people not to let their identities vanish often led to a revolt. Armin, a Germanic tribe leader united tribes and conquered a part of the Roman Empire, Germania, thus creating new boundaries and new identities. The same schemes repeat all throughout history, with the Barbarian migrations, the Franks, the Vikings, the Empire of Charlemagne, the Papal Domination, Old regime, conquests, invasions, persecutions, dominations, flux of populations, and creations of new boundaries. The multiple religious identities led to other conflicts and oppositions about faith with the age of religious discord and the Reformation.

The two last major conflicts in Europe, the two World Wars, were also the consequence of multiple identities and the rising of the national identity. The diversity of identities, defined by opposition to the others, was the starting mechanism leading to the clash. Furthermore, all these identities are still sources of conflicts nowadays. The Independence of the Irish republic, the conflicts in ex-Yugoslavia, the terrorists in Corsica are examples of tensions still existing due to people with multiple identities living on the same land.

Multiple identities have changed the shape of Europe and are still changing it drastically with growing force of globalization. Identities have been multiplied and diversified as a result of globalization and it has lead to a more tolerant and more inclusive society. The multitude of social, political, economic and cultural forces arising from this can be currently seen throughout Europe. Today, many "sub-national" or regional identities are emerging from the national identities. People can express a Basque or Celtic identity. They can be Catalan and Spanish, Jew and French, coming from Yorkshire and, simultaneously, declare themselves to be from Europe. It is what is called the "hybrid state". Demands for greater recognition of national identity, if not yet total separation, are on the rise; for example, Scotland, and in Belgium, Walloons and Flemings are increasingly at odds, while in France the Bretons, the Basques, the Corsicans, and German-speaking Alsatians are reviving their own ethnic traditions and customs. In Spain, Catalonia, the Basque country and Galicia are increasingly resentful of the central government in Madrid. Multiple identities are emerging and eroding the nation's monopoly of social identity. The economic needs of Europe are causing the nations to surrender part of its sovereignty, and therefore identity to a new entity, the European Union. Many, like the Scots and the Catalans hope that the joining to the European Union will open the way to the devolution of local powers and recognition of the multiple identities compressed under the European nationalist system. The whole concept of the European Union brings about another identity. People are already identifying themselves as European rather than French, German or Italian. This leads to a more inclusive society, one where many cultures can exist and overlap one where multiple identities exist; however the exclusion force can also be seen through the changes that the countries have to undergo in order to join the EU. The European Union has created a new identity, a larger one than has been seen in Europe in a long time, one that every person in Europe will one day become part of, and hopefully be the key to a stronger and more tolerant society.

Multiple identities have shaped Europe throughout the centuries. People with many different identities living in the same land have caused great changes in Europe. European history was made by a succession of conquests, invasions and revolts, carried by the feeling of belonging to a group defined in opposition with others, carried by the multiple identities coexisting on a single territory. The Europe we know today is the result of these numerous fluctuations in the shape of the boundaries, the transfers of population and influences carried in by invaders. Europe has seen much bloodshed as a result of multiple identities; however, with the force of globalization, the many multiple identities are showing signs of tolerance for each other and will thus hopefully create a bright future for the European society.

Please note that this sample paper on Multiple Identities is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Multiple Identities, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Multiple Identities will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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How To Think About Weird Things

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For the majority of people who make up the population of the world in today's day and age, the concept of what we should and should not believe in has been a topic of both great thought and great confusion. What each of us finds to be credible or not credible tends to differ greatly from what others deem as being so. As a result, many topics of questionable discussion are often a cause for much agitation and conflict between those who feel the urge to share their thoughts and ideas involving what they believe. But how are we to know if what we believe and what others believe are correct?

Theodore Schick Jr. and Lewis Vaughn's textbook "How to Think About Weird Things", was written with the intent of allowing us to better understand the ideas and convections behind the things we believe in.

Rather than address specific paranormal or strange ideas, the authors present a formula for the reader to assess the ideas for themselves. The book is designed to help the reader think critically about the many New Age claims and beliefs that abound in our contemporary culture. In an examination of many paranormal, supernatural, and mysterious phenomena, the authors focus on types of logical arguments and types of proofs, thereby providing a sound basis for soundly logical, critical reasoning. How To Think About Weird Things is enhanced further with a detailed procedure for evaluating extraordinary claims; explanations of vital principles of knowledge, reasoning and evidence; numerous boxes throughout the text offering details on various offbeat beliefs; and finally a useful appendix containing additional information on informal fallacies.

One of the most critical points that is thoroughly discussed in How to Think About Weird Things involves comprehending exactly how to justify our beliefs, while at the same time, be able to say we know that said beliefs are believable in the first place. A severe emphasis is placed on being able to explain our principles of critical thinking, not to mention learning how to evaluate any and every questionable claim for ourselves.

Write my Essay on How To Think About Weird Things

With this being said, an epistemology is defined as "a theory of knowledge", or, in simpler terms "how and if people know". This is a main factor expressed by the authors of this textbook. It is stated that, in needing to decide whether or not a claim or conviction is either true or false, we must realize that our epistemologies must be liable.

Likewise, the concept of skepticism is one that plays an important role in the premises of this textbook. Skepticism is defined as "the doctrine that true knowledge, or, knowledge in a particular area, is uncertain". Skeptical thinking, however, is defined as "the means to construct and understand a reasoned argument, as well as to recognize an argument that is either fallacious or fraudulent". In simpler terms, this refers to the fact that we must be critical of anything we hear that could be considered questionable in it's reasoning.

It is my belief that skeptical thinking should play an important role in the mind of any intelligent person on this planet. Being critical of any theory or conviction we deem as questionable is not only a sign of wisdom, but it is a sign of rationality. In order to genuinely be a "smart" thinker, we must possess the ability to justify all that we claim to be true. Too often, many of us dig ourselves into a hole when we claim to believe that something is liable, without being able to explain the reasons behind said belief's liability. Those who are the real smart thinkers of this world are not only able to claim that they believe something is true or false, but they are also enriched with the wisdom to be skeptical of their beliefs. Being a true skeptic involves the distinct ability to examine a conviction from every angle, therefore being able to understand the most promising explanation behind said conviction, all while keeping an open mind.

If asked to pinpoint the most important goal taken on by the authors of How to Think About Weird Things, I would say that it is to allow the readers of this textbook to apply rational thinking when assessing the truth behind strange and illogical claims. In doing so, we will be ready and willing to dissect and therefore better understand any questionable belief we may come across, before applying it to the big picture better known as reality. Therefore, we will indeed display the traits of the smart thinkers that this book hopes for us to be.

For the majority of people who make up the population of the world in today's day and age, the concept of what we should and should not believe in has been a topic of both great thought and great confusion. What each of us finds to be credible or not credible tends to differ greatly from what others deem as being so. As a result, many topics of questionable discussion are often a cause for much agitation and conflict between those who feel the urge to share their thoughts and ideas involving what they believe. But how are we to know if what we believe and what others believe are correct?

Theodore Schick Jr. and Lewis Vaughn's textbook "How to Think About Weird Things", was written with the intent of allowing us to better understand the ideas and convections behind the things we believe in.

Rather than address specific paranormal or strange ideas, the authors present a formula for the reader to assess the ideas for themselves. The book is designed to help the reader think critically about the many New Age claims and beliefs that abound in our contemporary culture. In an examination of many paranormal, supernatural, and mysterious phenomena, the authors focus on types of logical arguments and types of proofs, thereby providing a sound basis for soundly logical, critical reasoning. How To Think About Weird Things is enhanced further with a detailed procedure for evaluating extraordinary claims; explanations of vital principles of knowledge, reasoning and evidence; numerous boxes throughout the text offering details on various offbeat beliefs; and finally a useful appendix containing additional information on informal fallacies.

One of the most critical points that is thoroughly discussed in How to Think About Weird Things involves comprehending exactly how to justify our beliefs, while at the same time, be able to say we know that said beliefs are believable in the first place. A severe emphasis is placed on being able to explain our principles of critical thinking, not to mention learning how to evaluate any and every questionable claim for ourselves.

With this being said, an epistemology is defined as "a theory of knowledge", or, in simpler terms "how and if people know". This is a main factor expressed by the authors of this textbook. It is stated that, in needing to decide whether or not a claim or conviction is either true or false, we must realize that our epistemologies must be liable.

Likewise, the concept of skepticism is one that plays an important role in the premises of this textbook. Skepticism is defined as "the doctrine that true knowledge, or, knowledge in a particular area, is uncertain". Skeptical thinking, however, is defined as "the means to construct and understand a reasoned argument, as well as to recognize an argument that is either fallacious or fraudulent". In simpler terms, this refers to the fact that we must be critical of anything we hear that could be considered questionable in it's reasoning.

It is my belief that skeptical thinking should play an important role in the mind of any intelligent person on this planet. Being critical of any theory or conviction we deem as questionable is not only a sign of wisdom, but it is a sign of rationality. In order to genuinely be a "smart" thinker, we must possess the ability to justify all that we claim to be true. Too often, many of us dig ourselves into a hole when we claim to believe that something is liable, without being able to explain the reasons behind said belief's liability. Those who are the real smart thinkers of this world are not only able to claim that they believe something is true or false, but they are also enriched with the wisdom to be skeptical of their beliefs. Being a true skeptic involves the distinct ability to examine a conviction from every angle, therefore being able to understand the most promising explanation behind said conviction, all while keeping an open mind.

If asked to pinpoint the most important goal taken on by the authors of How to Think About Weird Things, I would say that it is to allow the readers of this textbook to apply rational thinking when assessing the truth behind strange and illogical claims. In doing so, we will be ready and willing to dissect and therefore better understand any questionable belief we may come across, before applying it to the big picture better known as reality. Therefore, we will indeed display the traits of the smart thinkers that this book hopes for us to be.

For the majority of people who make up the population of the world in today's day and age, the concept of what we should and should not believe in has been a topic of both great thought and great confusion. What each of us finds to be credible or not credible tends to differ greatly from what others deem as being so. As a result, many topics of questionable discussion are often a cause for much agitation and conflict between those who feel the urge to share their thoughts and ideas involving what they believe. But how are we to know if what we believe and what others believe are correct?

Theodore Schick Jr. and Lewis Vaughn's textbook "How to Think About Weird Things", was written with the intent of allowing us to better understand the ideas and convections behind the things we believe in.

Rather than address specific paranormal or strange ideas, the authors present a formula for the reader to assess the ideas for themselves. The book is designed to help the reader think critically about the many New Age claims and beliefs that abound in our contemporary culture. In an examination of many paranormal, supernatural, and mysterious phenomena, the authors focus on types of logical arguments and types of proofs, thereby providing a sound basis for soundly logical, critical reasoning. How To Think About Weird Things is enhanced further with a detailed procedure for evaluating extraordinary claims; explanations of vital principles of knowledge, reasoning and evidence; numerous boxes throughout the text offering details on various offbeat beliefs; and finally a useful appendix containing additional information on informal fallacies.

One of the most critical points that is thoroughly discussed in How to Think About Weird Things involves comprehending exactly how to justify our beliefs, while at the same time, be able to say we know that said beliefs are believable in the first place. A severe emphasis is placed on being able to explain our principles of critical thinking, not to mention learning how to evaluate any and every questionable claim for ourselves.

With this being said, an epistemology is defined as "a theory of knowledge", or, in simpler terms "how and if people know". This is a main factor expressed by the authors of this textbook. It is stated that, in needing to decide whether or not a claim or conviction is either true or false, we must realize that our epistemologies must be liable.

Likewise, the concept of skepticism is one that plays an important role in the premises of this textbook. Skepticism is defined as "the doctrine that true knowledge, or, knowledge in a particular area, is uncertain". Skeptical thinking, however, is defined as "the means to construct and understand a reasoned argument, as well as to recognize an argument that is either fallacious or fraudulent". In simpler terms, this refers to the fact that we must be critical of anything we hear that could be considered questionable in it's reasoning.

It is my belief that skeptical thinking should play an important role in the mind of any intelligent person on this planet. Being critical of any theory or conviction we deem as questionable is not only a sign of wisdom, but it is a sign of rationality. In order to genuinely be a "smart" thinker, we must possess the ability to justify all that we claim to be true. Too often, many of us dig ourselves into a hole when we claim to believe that something is liable, without being able to explain the reasons behind said belief's liability. Those who are the real smart thinkers of this world are not only able to claim that they believe something is true or false, but they are also enriched with the wisdom to be skeptical of their beliefs. Being a true skeptic involves the distinct ability to examine a conviction from every angle, therefore being able to understand the most promising explanation behind said conviction, all while keeping an open mind.

If asked to pinpoint the most important goal taken on by the authors of How to Think About Weird Things, I would say that it is to allow the readers of this textbook to apply rational thinking when assessing the truth behind strange and illogical claims. In doing so, we will be ready and willing to dissect and therefore better understand any questionable belief we may come across, before applying it to the big picture better known as reality. Therefore, we will indeed display the traits of the smart thinkers that this book hopes for us to be.

Please note that this sample paper on How To Think About Weird Things is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on How To Think About Weird Things, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on How To Think About Weird Things will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

Nonverbal Communication in Business

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NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION AN IMPORTANT PART OF

MODERN BUSINESS

The definition of nonverbal communication can be as short or as elaborate and specific as one wants to make it. In general the nonverbal communication describes any and all communication that occurs outside the realm of written or spoken words and is expressed by generation of either intentional or subconscious cues and their recognition. Commonly, nonverbal communication is divided into subcategories describing individual areas that transmit communication cues. These areas, among others, include kinesics, paralanguage, proxemics, haptics, oculesics, and physical appearance. Understanding and effective application of nonverbal communication skills is becoming increasingly important in the modern world of business for various reasons. The number of studies suggests that nonverbal cues have a significant effect on sales by creating a filter through which the following information is perceived (Leigh 1). Managers must also be efficient not only in understanding the dynamics of nonverbal communication by their employees, but also in determining how customers interpret the employees nonverbal cues (Sundram ).

Types of Nonverbal Communication

The purpose of this report is to examine the significance of the nonverbal communication in the business setting. The topics discussed include types of nonverbal communication, the importance of recognition and use of nonverbal communication elements, potential problems with nonverbal communication and solutions for effective nonverbal communication.

Kinesics, meaning - body movements, represents one of the largest areas of " "leakage" signals that escape from a deceptive interviewee despite his or her attempts at control." (Waltman 1). One must realize, however, that "leakage" is not limited to interview subjects, but is natural human behavior (Waltman 1). In turn, torso movements, gestures and facial expressions are commonly viewed as the most important areas of kinesics in terms of generation of nonverbal cues that, when combined with other cues as well as context, suggest a meaning to what is being communicated (Sunduram 4). Ray L. Birdwhistell, in his research, also stresses that kinesic communication must be viewed in terms of "contextual meaning" (Jolly 6). Additional benefit of using "contextual meaning" in interpretation of nonverbal cues is realized when trying to read a skilled communicator (Jolly 6). Experienced presenters can control their facial expressions and eye contact to reduce or, perhaps, prevent altogether the amount of leakage (Waltman ). Therefore, by analyzing the context as well as the separate cues, one is more likely to perceive the true picture. William Nolen, in his advice to the auditors, suggests that based on previous studies "synchronization of kinesic cues, such as rhythmic hand gesturing and head nods, heightens the perception of credibility. Synchronous displays are perceived as more competent, composed, trustworthy, extroverted, and sociable than dissynchronous displays" (Nollen -).

In addition to general kinesics, oculesics eye movement and behavior, is widely considered to be "single most powerful and persuasive way to gain attention and win approval" (Raudsepp ). The behavior of a person's eyes can either strengthen what is being communicated verbally, or diminish the importance or credibility of the subject. In American culture, a direct eye contact translates into confidence, competence and honesty (Raudsepp ). On the contrary, in other cultures a direct eye contact with superiors may be considered as daring or disrespectful. Such cultural nuances are incredibly important in the modern global business environment, where many cultures, traditions and customs often existing side by side. Another important factors influencing eye contact are relative heights of the people involved in the interaction and the distance between the individuals. The height gives the taller person a benefit of position of control or power and requires the shorter person to maintain eye contact because of the lack of power over the interaction. The proximity of interacting parties also tends to enhance the importance and intensity of the eye behavior simply because one is more aware of eye contact at closer range (Abrams 1).

Study of space as a part of nonverbal communication - referred to as proxemics further analyses physical and psychological space between individuals in the interaction (Abrams ). Proxemics could be divided into the elements of territory and personal space. Territory refers to the general area in which the interaction occurs, while personal space is just that a space immediately around a person. (Nolen 5) One of the most important elements of proxemics is the study of haptics or in more conventional terms - touch. According to various researches, touch "enhances one's interpersonal involvement, positive affect, social attachment, intimacy, and overall liking" (Sundaram 7). "The persuasive power of touch is further evident in the findings of Patterson et al. (168) stating that people tend to associate positive characteristics with the individual who touched them" (Sundaram 7). In case of proxemics, the "leakage cues" may or may not be obvious (Waltman ). In a non-familiar business setting a person cannot do much to change the territory, however, smaller actions, such as shifting a chair or placing a briefcase on his or her lap, can suggest the true feeling or intentions of that person (Waltman ).

Yet another important aspect of nonverbal communication is voice. Vocal characteristics of one's speech the paralanguage that include volume, rate, pitch and pronunciation are one of the most crucial factors in contributing or reducing the speaker's credibility. One of the most popular beliefs, which has been confirmed by various studies in communication, suggests that a loud, strong voice transmits confidence (Fatt ). Combinations of various elements of the paralanguage are attributed to different styles of speech, and, thus, provoke different feelings and perceptions in listeners. According to one of the studies, the conversation style, which includes slower rate, lower pitch and volume and less inflection, presented the speaker as being trustworthy, pleasant and friendly. In the same study the public speaking style, which includes higher pitch, vocal intensity and inflection, was said to portray dominance, dynamism and competence (Sundaram 6).

The last aspect of nonverbal communication discussed in this research is physical appearance. Although, in the greater sense, attractiveness describes characteristics that go beyond the physical appearance alone (Gabbot 4), physically attractive people are perceived as "more persuasive (Chaiken, 17), successful in changing attitudes (Kahle and Homer, 185), and are perceived to be warmer, more poised, and more socially skilled than less attractive people (Chaiken, 17)" (Sundaram 8). The way one dresses is also an important element of physical appearance as a source of nonverbal cues, in big part because a person has much more control over his or her clothes, as opposed to the features of the face or the body size. In the recent decade the business world in US has seen various degrees of acceptance of the business casual dress code either as an alternative or as an addition to the traditional business attire (McPherson 1-).

The Importance of Recognition and Use of Nonverbal Communication Elements

Importance of effective recognition of the nonverbal cues is difficult to overestimate. According to popular scholarly beliefs, between 60 and percent of the meaning in the interaction may be generated by the nonverbal aspects of communication (Leigh ). Some break it down even further stating that "people respond to body language 55 percent of the time, tone of voice 8 percent of the time, and actual words a mere 7 percent" (Arthur ). As business organizations and interactions become more and more complex, the room for error diminishes greatly and the difficulty of obtaining and maintaining the competitive edge become increasingly important. Areas of sales, consulting, auditing, investment banking and many others where primary business revolves around client interaction, information acquisition and analysis, and persuading individuals are the ones that must be extremely effective in nonverbal communication. For example, a sale manager communicating with a new client over the telephone can benefit from skillful utilization of paralanguage, because the initial call creates a base on which the future interaction and is built (Leigh 1). In the service industry, the recognition and acceptance of nonverbal communication can too benefit the employees as well as the business process in general. Customer satisfaction depends on more than just adequate execution of the service, it also includes the nonverbal context of what is being done or said. Managers who realize the significance of the nonverbal aspect of communication and effects it has on the success of the business interaction will be able to seek out individuals with better developed nonverbal communication skills and integrate them in the optimal position of the business process (Gabbot ).

Potential Problems with Nonverbal Communication

In addition to the benefits of nonverbal communication, some problems exist as well. As the research suggests, little correlation exists between one's self-rated accuracy of decoding of the nonverbal cues and the actual performance (DePaulo ). Some individuals also tend to concentrate more on their strongest areas of nonverbal communication while neglecting the other aspects. As in the example presented by Diane Arthur, the kinesic cues, contradictory to other verbal and nonverbal behavior, significantly undermined the credibility and effectiveness of the presenter (Arthur ). Another problem area within the realm of nonverbal communication is the ambiguity of generated and transmitted cues. Since the appropriate meaning and interpretation of nonverbal cues are highly contextual in nature, the same gestures, facial expressions or posture can and do mean different things in different interaction environment and settings. Often, perceivers tend to venture farther than available context allows and interpret the signals according to their mental map, or to put it in other word - their previous knowledge, experience, stereotypes and others perceptual filters. Problem is further escalated due to the natural tendency of humans to be overly confident of the purely subjective judgments reached according personally-relevant information (Druckman 178). This idea develops into yet another obstacle in the interpretation of body language. Differences in cultural backgrounds of those involved in the interaction may interfere with correct decoding the encoded message. Most common cultural differences would probably be in kinesics. For example, a nod in the United States, as well as in many other cultures, signifies understanding or agreement. However, in the Middle East, a single nod represents disagreement or rejection (Arthur ). Similarly, other commonly used gestures or other aspects of nonverbal communication may have completely different meanings in various cultures. With this said, one must realize that the term culture does not refer to the various ethnic and geographical groups exclusively. Culture can describe anything from sex to interorganizational culture. Therefore, in order to correctly decode the nonverbal cues one must not only analyze the ones that are relative to the context of what is being communicated, but also to attempt to interpret them in light of the decoder's cultural background. The task of understanding nonverbal cues clearly is extremely complex and misunderstandings are common.

Solutions for Effective Nonverbal Communication

At least partial solutions to the problems of nonverbal communication can and should be implemented in the business organizations of today through training, analysis and practice. Managers, as the trained professionals and business leaders are responsible for the training and, partially, for analysis aspects of the solution. In addition, each individual is responsible for continuing analysis and practice of his or her nonverbal skills. The managers can aid the employees and coworkers by explaining and ensuring that the employees understand the significance of nonverbal side of communication process. Initially training seminars or classes should be offered to everybody and later readily available for anyone who needs them. Constant feedback is also crucial to ensure continuous learning and analysis process (Sundaram 1). William Nolen cites examples of George Patton and Richard Nixon practicing their facial expressions in order to appear more determined or trustworthy. They realized the importance of nonverbal communication in portraying the desired image. Not unlike U.S. General and U.S. President, today's business people must portray a number of images depending on the situation and their field (Nolen 1). Therefore, one must not only understand the importance of nonverbal communication and be able to recognize them, but also to be continuously improving one's own nonverbal behavior.

Conclusion

From the information presented, the importance of the nonverbal communication in modern business is obvious. The fact that a great number of successful CEOs, auditors and sales people refer to psychology of human behavior as one of the most useful non-business skill they posses demonstrates the vitality of using such skill appropriately and effectively. Employees empowered by this analytical tool are more likely to accomplish better results, avoid unnecessary confusion which may result in delays, sell the product or close an important deal simply because they are one step ahead of the game. Companies as a whole can create a corporate structure that conforms to the company's business model and promotes it via the employees into the markets. Although, some aspects of the nonverbal communication still lack sufficient empirical research to be interpreted conclusively, its benefits obviously can and should be utilized as much as possible on various levels of modern business environment. It could be as beneficial on the micro level the individual's self analysis and continuous improvement of his hand gestures during presentations for example, as it could be on the greater scale, perhaps the development of corporate image through the marketing campaign.

Please note that this sample paper on Nonverbal Communication in Business is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Nonverbal Communication in Business, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Nonverbal Communication in Business will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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ALCOHOLISM AS A DISEASE

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ALCOHOLISM AS A DISEASE

The overall objective of this research paper is to identify and address those aspects of alcoholism, which contribute to it as a medical disease. True, alcoholism has many ramifications for society as well as the economy, but the focus of this paper shall be, for the most part, on the medical aspects. In the way of background, alcoholism refers to the drinking of alcoholic beverages to such a degree that major aspects of the individual's life -such as work, school, family relationships or personal safety and health, above all, are

seriously and repeatedly interfered with. Alcoholism is considered a disease, meaning that it follows a characteristic course with known physical, psychological, and social systems. The alcoholic continues to consume alcohol despite the destructive consequences. Alcoholism is serious, progressive, and irreversible. If not treated, it can be fatal. It is generally thought that once the disease has developed, the alcoholic will not drink normally again. An alcoholic who abstains from drinking, however, can regain control over the aspects of life with which alcohol interfered. The alcoholic is then said to be "recovering" not "cured" of the disease. It is important to note that the particular symptoms and pattern of drinking problems may vary with the individual. Alcoholism is, therefore, a very complex disorder, and it is this very complexity which has led some recent researchers to question the accuracy of the disease concept of alcoholism. A person does not have to drink every day to be an alcoholic. Moreover, someone who drinks frequently, or sometimes gets drunk is not necessarily an alcoholic. It is possible to abuse alcohol for a short or contained period of time without developing alcoholism. For example, some people may drink abusively during a personal crisis and then resume normal drinking. College students tend to drink more heavily than other age groups. It is often difficult to distinguish such heavy and abusive drinking from the early stages of alcoholism. How well the person

can tolerate giving up alcohol for an extended time, and the effect of the drinking on family, friends, work, and health, may indicate the extent of the alcoholic's problem. More than ten million Americans are estimated to be alcoholics. Alcoholism is found among all age, social, cultural, and economic groups. In terms of its symptoms and causes, which is more in the medical tract, I feel, some common signs of alcoholism in the early stages are constant drinking for relief of personal problems, an increase in a person's tolerance for alcohol, onset of memory lapses while drinking, ("blackouts"), surreptitious drinking, and an urgent need for the first drink ("craving"). In the middle and late phases, dependence on drinking increases and memory blackouts become more frequently. A physical dependence on alcohol first appears with early warning tremors and agitation that require a drink for relief. In the late stage, drinking bouts are usually very frequent. There is an acute withdrawal syndrome, delirium tremors or DT's, when drinking ceases. This includes agitation, tremors, hallucinations and possibly seizures. (American Medical Association, p.7)

As this author is primarily concerned with the relationship between medical diseases and alcoholism, I should like to focus my attention at this time towards this topic. For example, recent studies have raised questions about the role that dietary fat and cholesterol play in cardiovascular disease, the number one killer of American citizens. Can low cholesterol be unhealthy? Certainly it has been established that high cholesterol can, at least the bad cholesterol. Some studies found that people with the lowest cholesterol levels were less likely to die of coronary heart disease than people with higher cholesterol levels but they had higher mortality rates from other causes, such as lung cancer, digestive diseases and accidents. However, there is no evidence that low cholesterol causes diseases, according to Dr. Rosser. He speculates that very low levels may result from health problems, such as cancers, liver disease and alcoholism. (Michaels, p. 4)

At this point, I should state that new research into alcoholism, and particularly its relationships to medical diseases, are ongoing. For example, new research into the baffling causes of alcoholism is revealing even deeper clues that it is largely in the genes. Researchers are making headway in their search for genetic markers that can predict whether an individual is predisposed to alcoholism. If they succeed, children of alcoholics could be warned. A recent discovery by researchers at the University of California's Ernest

Gallow Clinic And Research Center in San Francisco may help identify potential alcoholics. Led by Dr. Ivan Diamond, a team collected white blood cells from alcoholics and non-alcoholics. They cultivated six generations of cells and compared the two groups. Those from alcoholics showed significantly higher levels of a messenger molecule that alters cell activity. Says Diamond "This suggests there is a biochemical marker that can actually distinguish alcoholics from the rest of the population." The Gallow scientists are now

examining the cells of children of alcoholics to see if they can find conclusive prove that alcoholism is hereditary as previous research had suggested. The studies, says Dr. Carlton Erickson, executive director of the Texas Research Society On Alcoholism in Austin, "Enhanced evidence that alcoholism is a disease, not a character defect." The American Medical Association and many others already believe this. Conclusive proof, however, will be needed to convince the doubtful. (Hiroshi, p.8) With the American Medical Association

(AMA) behind the belief that there exists a direct causal relationship between alcohol and medical problems, much research is continuing in this vain. Many agree that more money needs to be spend on research, and I agree that this would have many benefits. For example, alcoholism has clearly impacted society in a most deleterious manner, with corporate America experiencing the highest rate of absenteeism than it has ever before, thus costing both corporate America as well as the taxpayers hundreds of billions of dollars yearly.

Similarly, many biological afflictions are clearly associated with alcohol, from brain disorders, to cirrhosis, to circulatory disorders, etc.

It is my belief that individual case studies tend to bring the problem home. This problem, i.e. alcoholism, (and especially its medical consequences) has been researched and researched ad infinitum. It continues to, at this writing, and no doubt will indefinitely continue to be a subject of ongoing research. However, individual case studies do tend to bring the larger theoretical or broad based understanding of alcoholism home, to which I should like to cite one of the more salient.

Citing one case study, you would have to be an opposing pitcher still carrying a grudge to wish anything but the best for New York Yankee's slugger Mickey Mantle during his recovery from an emergency liver transplant in Dallas. But 'The Mick's' exploits with the bottle are as legendary as those with the bat, raised the question of whether an alcoholic, even a recovered alcoholic - - should get the same consideration for a liver transplant as a patient with a more conventional lifestyle. Gut reactions aside, there is one viable conclusion. Dangerous behavior, provided it is in the past - - should play no part in transplant decisions. Medical ethicists decided long ago that a patient's social worth is irrelevant. The prospects for improvement in a patient's health should be the only criterion. In short, it is the future, not the past that counts. Mantle's case study shows why. Competition for organs is intense. Last year, 674 patients died while waiting for a liver, while ,650 succeeded. Candidates are rated according to the severity of their conditions by the United Network For Organ Sharing in Richmond, Virginia. When organs become available, they are allocated as close to where the donor is as possible, by matching blood types, size and compatibility. Patients in the worst condition gets treated first. That is why Mantle, who had two weeks to live, got to replace a liver damaged by cancer, hepatitis and forty years of drinking. He was the first patient with the most urgent need. Furthermore, his past drinking is not a good indicator of his future prospects. Studies, including one by Dr. Ruud A. F. Krom at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minn., show that the chances for short and long term success are about the same for patients transplanted for alcohol liver disease and those for other liver diseases. Physicians and hospitals try to guard against future abuse. They treat transplant patients before they are put in line for new livers. Patients are interviewed by physicians, substance abuse counselors, social workers and psychiatrists. The University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, a major transplant center requires alcohol abusers to abstain for six months before it will put them on a waiting list. But punishing patients for their past is taboo. And good reason…if patients with a history of alcoholism are automatically disqualified for a transplant today, what next? Tomorrow people who have quite smoking could be denied lung transplants, those who let their weight get out of hand could be denied new hearts. (Schwartz, p.B-14) Today, there are really no rigid guidelines, at least according to medical ethicists. There do not exist any kind of punitive disqualification of people with alcoholism, but the decision as to who will live and who will die largely lay within the purview of the judgement of local physicians and transplants centers.

Alcoholism has a direct relationship to medical and physical diseases, as previously indicated. Similarly, it is also a source of problems such as domestic violence, fatal car accidents, child abuse, and whole litany of other problems. Although the focus of this research paper has been on the medical relationship to alcoholism, it is undeniable that these other problems, although not immediately 'medically relative,' do in fact portend emotional and physical medical maladies for many individuals who suffer both directly and indirectly from alcoholism i.e. parents, friends, etc. At any rate, there is no doubt that much more research needs to be done on this subject. Many have speculated that alcoholism may be a genetic disease, rather than an environmental one. At the same time, the complexity of alcoholism and disease portends so many ramifications, that far more research needs to be done in this area, and indeed as in centuries, even millenniums gone by, there is little doubt that individuals will continue to imbibe, and even abuse alcohol. AMA Handbook on Alcoholism, pub. 187; repr.

14, Bureau Development Inc., Parsippany, Inc.

Hiroshi, Katayma, "Alcoholics Chips Off The Old Block," Fortune,

1 December, 188

Michaels, Evelyn, "The Fat and Cholesterol Debate," Vol. 67,

Chatelaline, 1 May, 14

Schwartz, Harry, "Today's Debate Organ Donation," U.S.A. Today,

, June 15Please note that this sample paper on ALCOHOLISM AS A DISEASE is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on ALCOHOLISM AS A DISEASE, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on ALCOHOLISM AS A DISEASE will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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French Revolution

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Revolution? The major cause of the French Revolution was the disputes between the different types of social classes in French society. The French Revolution of 178-17 was one of the most important events in the history of the world. The Revolution led to many changes in France, which at the time of the Revolution, was the most powerful state in Europe. The Revolution led to the development of new political forces such as democracy and nationalism. It questioned the authority of kings, priests, and nobles. The Revolution also gave new meanings and new ideas to the political ideas of the people.

The French Revolution was spread over the ten year period between 178 and 17. The primary cause of the revolution was the disputes over the peoples differing ideas of reform. Before the beginning of the Revolution, only moderate reforms were wanted by the people. An example of why they wanted this was because of king Louis XIVs actions. At the end of the seventeenth century, King Louis XIVs wars began decreasing the royal finances dramatically. This worsened during the eighteenth century. The use of the money by Louis XIV angered the people and they wanted a new system of government. The writings of the philosophes such as Voltaire and Diderot, were critical of the government.

They said that not one official in power was corrupt, but that the whole system of government needed some change. Eventually, when the royal finances were expended in the 1780s, there began a time of greater criticism. This sparked the peasants notion of wanting change. Under the Old Regime in France, the king was the absolute monarch. Louis XIV had centralized power in the royal bureaucracy, the government departments which administered his policies. Together, Louis XIV and the bureaucracy worked to preserve royal authority and to maintain the social structure of the Old Regime.

At this time in French history, the social classes played an important role in the lives of the people. The social structure of France was divided among three groups the First Estate, the Second Estate, and the Third Estate.

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Each social group had a varied type of people within their structure, which presented the different views of the people. The First Estate was the Church. During the ancien regime, the church was equal in terms of its social, economic, and spiritual power. The First Estate owned nearly 10 per cent of all land in France. It paid no taxes but, to support church activities such as school running and caring for the poor, they collected a tithe, or a tax on income.

About one-third of the entire clergy in France served as parish priests. Also included in this estate were the nobles. Some of the nobles lived in luxury in major cities in France, such as Versailles or Paris. Parish priests usually lived a hardworking life. This Estate was the minority of the people in France, having approximately 1 to per cent of the population.

The Second Estate in French life was the nobility. They enjoyed extensive rights and privileges. They made up less than percent of the population. They, like the First Estate, paid hardly any taxes. Economically, the nobility was characterized by great land wealth. Nobles were generally the richest members of the society. Typical sources of income were rents and dues for the use of their farms or estates. The First and Second Estates were grouped together because they had similar political beliefs.

The Third Estate consisted of the commoners. It included the bourgeoisie, peasants and city workers. The bourgeoisie, or the middle class, were by far, the wealthiest. In the bourgeoisie, there were the merchants and manufacturers, lawyers, doctors and others similar to those types of professions. Peasants made up the largest group within the Third Estate. They were forced to pay hefty taxes, tithes to the church, and rents to their landlords for the land that they lived on. The last group within the Third Estate were the city workers. They were servants, apprentices, and household maids.

The major cause of the Revolution were the differences these three groups had. However, there was another important factor during these times. France suffered from harsh economic problems. Poor farm harvests by farmers hurt the economy, and trade rules from the Middle Ages still survived, making trade difficult. However, the most serious problem was the problem facing the government during this time. The French government borrowed much money to pay for the wars of Louis XIV. Louis still borrowed money to fight wars and to keep French power alive in Europe. These costs greatly increased the national debt, which was, at the time, already too high.

When King Louis XVI came into power, he realized that these problems existed. At first he did not know what to do, until he found a man by the name of Robert Turgot. He eased the financial crisis of France, but he had difficulties when he tried to introduce a major reform, that of taxing the nobles. He had such difficulties because the king could not tax the nobles unless the Parliament approved of the new tax laws. The people in the courts that voted on these laws were the nobles, called nobles of the robe, and therefore rejected Turgots reform. After Turgot was rejected, the king fired him from his office. This led Louis XVI to summon the Estates General in 178. The Estates General was the place where representatives from each social class could be represented. Here, many issues would be discussed, and at this time in French history, it would be centered around the economic crisis. When the Estates General met in 178, the deputies, or representatives, from the Third Estate demanded that the three estates meet together, with each deputy having an equal vote. That way, the First and Second Estates could outvote the Third Estate. When the king heard of this, he demanded that the three estates meet separately. This caused anger within the Third Estate. The deputies from the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly. Louis XVI quickly rejected these deputies from the meeting hall. After a while, Louis XVI decided that it would be best if the three estates met together. He ordered the other two estates to join the Third Estate in the National Assembly.

Although now the three estates met together, there were divisions among them. Some wanted to protect their rights, while others wanted to establish a limited, constitutional monarchy. This sparked some change in the French people.

Immediately after the National Assembly secretly began working on a constitution, the peasants and workers expected relief from taxes and other dues that they paid. Little happened, and they still faced their same problems of unemployment and inflation. Then there were reports that Louis XVI was bringing troops to Paris. This increased the peoples fears.

When Louis brought troops to Versailles, many citizens feared that he wanted to get rid of the National Assembly. As a result, they stormed the Bastille. Other disturbances also broke out. People were caught up in what was called the Great Fear. Rumors passed from village to village that robbers were destroying homes all over France. When no robbers showed up, the peasants turned to their landlords. They destroyed grain towers, and destroyed tax records, showing that they will never pay any taxes, fines or dues ever again.

These events forced Louis to summon the National Assembly on August 4th. They people discussed possible reforms. On this day, the National Assembly ended serfdom. Towards the end of August, the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man. It stated that democratic principles would be the basis for French government. The job of turning these ideas into a constitution still remained.

While the constitution was in the process of being made, an angry crowd in Paris rioted, forcing the National Assembly to recognize their demands. Some of these rioters were women. They were angry about food prices. They also thought that the king and queen were going against the National Assembly. They demanded that Louis return to Paris where they could watch him. To prevent any further uprisings, he agreed.

Throughout France, all ancient customs were thrown away by the revolution. The National Assembly called for freedom of worship and abolished all special activities and privileges of the Catholic Church. To raise money that was needed, the government began selling off church lands, which angered many Catholics.

In 171, the National Assembly brought forward a new constitution. It made France a limited monarchy and established a system of separation of powers. Under the constitution, the old distinctions between the clergy, nobles, and commoners disappeared.

Few people were satisfied with the constitutional monarchy. Louis XVI was frightened at the actions of the National Assembly. He fled the country with his wife, but he was later arrested and brought back to accept the constitution. After this action by the king, moderate revolutionaries still wanted to preserve the constitutional monarchy, while the radicals distrusted the king and wanted a republic. These were the causes of the French Revolution. Many peoples lives were changed during this time. Peoples ideas also changed.

After the war between France and Austria and Prussia, prices increased dramatically, and food shortages occurred. When Louis XVI and his wife fled to the Legislative Assembly, they were imprisoned. They called for a national convention to write a new constitution. The National Convention met in September. The National Convention tried and convicted Louis XVI of treason. He was sentenced to death.

News of his death spread all throughout Europe. Monarchs of European nations feared that the Revolution would spread. By 17, the French armies occupied the Austrian Netherlands and were about to invade Prussia. But, in 17, Great Britain, the Dutch Netherlands, and Spain went along with Prussia and Austria in a war against France. With these five powerful nations fighting against France, the French were outnumbered and outmatched. This one war was very hard for France. This war caused many deaths at home due to starvation. At this point in the Revolution, some people thought that the Revolution had gone too far and should be put to an end.

In the effort to restore temporary peace in the society, the National Convention made a constitution that created a Committee of Public Safety. It campaigned against people who were considered enemies of France. Maximilien Robespierre led the Committee of Public Safety. He wanted to create a Republic of Virtue. The Committee went all over France to help other groups find traitors to France. During the Reign of Terror, trials for the people were held often. Many people were brought to the guillotine and killed. Most of the victims were commoners. This time of terror had scared the people, and their revolts towards the government ended. The Committee of Public Safety organized new and powerful armies to protect itself from foreign invasion. The Committee also set limits on prices and salaries.

By early in 174, the French armies were winning battles again, but supporters were asking if these executions of the people were still needed in society. The National Convention then arrested Maximilien Robespierre, and executed him, which ended the Reign of Terror.

Between the years of 178 and 174, French life had changed dramatically. There were changes in the lifestyle of the people, as well as in clothes and art. The monarchies were gone, and the king no longer ruled. The National Convention abolished all feudal customs and ended all slavery. Revolutionary leaders also established the metric system. They wanted to set up free public schools, but that never came about, due to the economic problems. In 175, after the total ending of the Reign of Terror, the National Convention established another constitution. It established a new system of government called the Directory. This Directory, however, faced many problems. The legislative deputies begged and bought political votes, and prices rose sharply, something which the poor classes of society didnt like. Along with these problems, it still followed a foreign policy. It built the largest army in Europe during this time. This army were headed by a great military leader, Napoleon Bonaparte.

In 17, Napoleon won many battles against the British, and at this time, he was a general. He next won battles over Italy, and in 178, he invaded Egypt. He defeated Egypts army, but he had to pay for his victory. At sea, the Egyptian Navy, led by Horatio Nelson, destroyed the French fleet at the Nile river. This loss meant that the fleet could not take the soldiers back to France, so, Napoleon left them there and he went back to France. Unbeknownst to the people of France about the tragedy in Egypt, he was still welcomed as a hero. When talking to the people at home, he found that many people were not satisfied with the Directory. With the help of troops, he overthrew the government in 17.

Under this new government, Napoleon was called the First Consul. His military talents helped him to win popular support. With his support, he was named the dictator of France. This time in French History was important to the people of France because of the different types of government they had. Socialism, liberalism and nationalism all were results of the French Revolution. It gave people the idea that if they tried, they could reorganize a society whenever it was needed. The greatest legacy of the French Revolution, however, was that people could change anything that they wanted with political ideas, words and laws. Please note that this sample paper on French Revolution is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on French Revolution, we are here to assist you. Your cheap college papers on French Revolution will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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